Party systems

Party systems may be broken down into three broad categories: two-party, multiparty, and single-party. Such a classification is based not merely on the number of parties operating within a particular country but on a variety of distinctive features that the three systems exhibit. Two-party and multiparty systems represent means of organizing political conflict within pluralistic societies and are thus part of the apparatus of democracy.

Single parties usually operate in situations in which genuine political conflict is not tolerated. This broad statement is, however, subject to qualification, for, although single parties do not usually permit the expression of points of view that are fundamentally opposed to the party line or ideology, there may well be intense conflict within these limits over policy within the party itself. And even within a two-party or a multiparty system, debate may become so stymied and a particular coalition of interests so entrenched that the democratic process is seriously compromised.
The distinction between two-party and multiparty systems is not as easily made as it might appear. In any two-party system there are invariably small parties in addition to the two major parties, and there is always the possibility that a third, small party prevents one of the two main parties from gaining a majority of seats in the legislature. This is the case with regard to the Liberal Party in Great Britain, for example. Other countries do not fall clearly into either category; thus, Austria and Germany only approximate the two-party system. It is not simply a question of the number of parties that determines the nature of the two-party system; many other elements are of importance, the extent of party discipline in particular.

Multiparty systems

In Anglo-Saxon countries there is a tendency to consider the two-party system as normal and the multiparty system as the exceptional case. But, in fact, the two-party system that operates in Great Britain, the United States, and New Zealand is much rarer than the multiparty system, which is found in almost all of western Europe.
In western Europe, three major categories of parties have developed since the beginning of the 19th century: conservative, liberal, and socialist. Each reflects the interests of a particular social class and expounds a particular political ideology. After World War I other categories of parties developed that were partly the result of divisions or transformations of older parties. Communist parties began as splinter groups of socialist parties, and Christian Democratic parties attempted to weld together moderate socialists and conservatives and some liberals. Other distinctive types of parties emerged in some countries. In Scandinavia, liberal rural parties developed in the 19th century, reflecting a long tradition of separate representation of the rural population. In many countries ethnic minorities formed the basis of nationalist parties, which then either joined existing parties or divided them.
The appearance of socialism in the 19th century upset the earlier lines of battle between conservatives and liberals and tended to throw the latter two groups into a common defense of capitalism. Logically, this situation should have led to the fusion of conservatives and liberals into one bourgeois party that would have presented a united stand against socialism. This is, in fact, what happened in Great Britain after World War I.
One of the most important factors determining the number of parties operating within a particular country is the electoral system. Proportional representation tends to favour the development of multiparty systems because it ensures representation in the legislature for even small parties. The majority, single-ballot system (also known as “first past the post” or “winner take all”) tends to produce a two-party system, because it excludes parties that may gain substantial numbers of votes but not the majority of votes necessary to elect a representative within a constituency. The majority system with a second ballot (also known as the two-round system) favours a multiparty system tempered by alliances between parties. The German Empire (1871–1914) and the French Third (1870–1940) and Fifth (since 1958) republics adopted this system for legislative elections. France also uses the two-round system to select its head of state, as do Austria and Portugal. In the developing world, the two-round system is most often found in former French colonies such as Vietnam, Togo, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Voters choose between the parties that did best in a first ballot. This leaves small parties at a disadvantage but, nevertheless, gives them opportunity to strengthen their role during the second balloting as long as they are willing to enter into alliances with the leading parties.
Another factor producing multiparty systems is the intensity of political conflicts. If, within a given political movement, extremists are numerous, then it is difficult for the moderates in that party to join with them in a united front. Two rival parties are likely to be formed. Thus, the power of the Jacobins among 19th-century French liberals contributed to the inability of the moderates to form one great liberal party, as was successfully achieved in Great Britain. Likewise, the power of the extremists among the conservatives was an obstacle to the development of a strong conservative party.
The distinction between the multiparty system and the two-party system corresponds largely to a distinction between two types of Western political regime. In a two-party situation the administration has, in effect, an assurance of a majority in the legislature, deriving from the predominance of one party; it has, therefore, a guarantee of continuance and effectiveness. Such a system is often referred to as majority parliamentarianism. In a multiparty situation, on the other hand, it is quite rare for one party to have a majority in the legislature; governments must, therefore, be founded on coalitions, which are always more heterogeneous and more fragile than a single party. The result is less stability and less political power. Such systems may be referred to as nonmajority parliamentarianism.
In practice, majority and nonmajority parliamentary systems do not coincide exactly with two-party systems and multiparty systems. For, if each of the two parties is flexible and does not control the voting patterns of its members (as is the case in the United States), the numerical majority of one of the parties matters little. It can happen, moreover, that one party in a multiparty system will hold an absolute majority of seats in the legislature so that no coalition is required. Such a situation is unusual but did occur in West Germany (1949–90), Italy, and Belgium at various times after 1945.
Ordinarily, however, a coalition will be the only means of attaining a parliamentary majority within the framework of the multiparty system. Coalitions are by nature more heterogeneous and more unstable than a grouping made up of one party, but their effectiveness varies greatly according to the discipline and organization of the parties involved. In the case of flexible parties that are undisciplined and that allow each legislator to vote on his own, the coalition will be weak and probably short-lived. The instability and weakness of governments is at its maximum in such situations, of which the Third French Republic provides a good example.
If, on the other hand, the parties involved in a coalition are rigid and disciplined, it is possible for a system quite similar to the two-party system to develop. This is often the case when two opposing alliances are formed, one on the left and one on the right, and when both are strong enough to endure through the legislative session. This type of coalition, referred to as bipolarized, introduces elements of the two-party system into a multiparty framework. A situation of this type developed in the mid-20th century in Sweden, where conservative, liberal, and agrarian parties aligned against the Swedish Social Democratic Party, which allied itself with the Communist Party (now the Left Party).
The system of bipolar alliances may be contrasted with the system of a centrist alliance. Rather than the parties on the right forming a centre-right coalition to oppose a centre-left coalition, there is the possibility that the centre-left and the centre-right will join forces and reject the extremes at both ends of the political spectrum. Such a situation occurred in Germany during the Weimar Republic, when the government rested on a majority formed of a coalition of Catholic centrists and social democrats, with opposition coming from the communists and the nationalists on the extreme left and right.
Centrist coalitions all tend to give the average citizen a sense of political alienation. In rejecting both extremes, coalitions may well be isolating the radical, unstable elements, but the governing coalition may tend to be unresponsive to new ideas, uninspiringly pragmatic, and too ready to compromise. This situation gives rise to a more or less permanent breach between practical politics and political ideals. An advantage of bipolarization or of the two-party system is that the moderates of both sides must collaborate with those who are more extreme in their views, and the extremists must be willing to work with those who are more moderate; the pressure from the extremists prevents the moderates from getting bogged down, while collaboration with the moderates lends a touch of realism to the policies of the extremists.

Two-party systems

A fundamental distinction must be made between the two-party system as it is found in the United States and as it is found in Great Britain. Although two major parties dominate political life in the two countries, the system operates in quite different ways.

 The United States has always had a two-party system, first in the opposition between the Federalists and the Anti-Federalists and then in the competition between the Republicans and the Democrats. There have been frequent third-party movements in the history of the country, but they have always failed. Presidential elections seem to have played an important role in the formation of this type of two-party system. The mechanism of a national election in so large a country has necessitated very large political organizations and, at the same time, relatively simplified choices for the voter.

American parties are different from their counterparts in other Western countries. They are not tied in the same way to the great social and ideological movements that have so influenced the development of political life in Europe during the last two centuries. There have been socialist parties at various times in the history of the United States, but they have never challenged the dominance of the two major parties. It can be argued that the main reason for the failure of socialist parties in America has been the high degree of upward mobility permitted by a rich and continually expanding economy. The consequence of this mobility has been that class consciousness has never developed in the United States in a manner that would encourage the formation of large socialist or communist parties.
In comparison with European political movements, therefore, American parties have appeared as two varieties of one liberal party, and within each party can be found a wide range of opinion, going from the right to the left.
The American parties have a flexible and decentralized structure, marked by the absence of discipline and rigid hierarchy. This was the structure of most of the cadre-type parties of the 19th century, a structure that most liberal parties have retained. Federalism and a concern for local autonomy accentuate the lack of rigid structure and the weakness of lines of authority in the parties. Organization may be relatively strong and homogeneous at the local level, but such control is much weaker on the state level and practically nonexistent on the national level. There is some truth to the observation that the United States has not two parties but 100—that is, two in each state. But it is also true that each party develops a certain degree of national unity for the presidential election and that the leadership of the president within his party gives the victorious party some cohesion.
The lack of rigid party structure has historically encouraged bipartisanship between Republican and Democratic members of Congress. Through the 20th century, liberal Republicans and Democrats tended to ally against conservative Republicans and Democrats. Yet neither bloc was stable, and the alignment varied from one vote to another. As a consequence, despite the existence of a two-party system, no stable legislative majority was possible. In order to have his budget adopted and his legislation passed, the president of the United States was forced to carefully gather the necessary votes on every question,

Single-party systems

There have been three historical forms of the single-party system: communist, fascist, and that found in the developing countries. In communist countries of the 20th century, the party was considered to be the spearhead of the urban working class and of other workers united with it (peasants, intellectuals, etc.). Its role was to aid in the building of a socialist regime during the transitory phase between capitalism and pure socialism, called the dictatorship of the proletariat. An understanding of the exact role of the party requires an appreciation of the Marxist conception of the evolution of the state. In countries based on private ownership of the means of production, the power of the state, according to the Marxist point of view, is used to further the interests of the controlling capitalists. In the first stage of revolution the power of the state is broken. Power, however, still has to be wielded to prevent counterrevolution and to facilitate the transition to communism, at which stage coercion will no longer be necessary. Thus, the party, in effect, assumes the coercive functions of the state during the dictatorship of the proletariat or, to be more accurate, during the dictatorship of the party in the name of the proletariat.